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Plurals and Concord (Upper Form)

Plurals

Formation of the Plural - Regular Nouns

• For regular nouns, we add the suffix -s to their singular forms.

          Examples:
          boy       -> boys
          cow      -> cows
          friend   -> friends
          place    -> places

• For regular nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch, -tch or -x, we add -es to their singular forms.

          Examples:
          class    -> classes
          brush   -> brushes
          branch -> branches
          stretch -> stretches
          box      -> boxes

• Most nouns ending in -o also form their plurals when -es is added to their singular form.

          Examples:
          mango -> mangoes
          potato  -> potatoes
          hero    -> heroes

• For some nouns ending in -o, we add only -s.

          Examples:
          piano   -> pianos
         dynamo -> dynamos
          ratio     -> ratios

• Nouns ending in -y after a consonant from their plurals when the -y is changed to -i and -es is added.

         Examples:
         baby    -> babies
         city     -> cities

• Nouns ending in -f or -fe form their plurals by dropping the -f or -fe and -ves is added.

         Examples:
         knife   -> knives
         leaf     -> leaves
         life     -> lives
         self    -> selves

Formation of the Plural - Irregular Nouns

• There are some irregular nouns which are changed to the plural by changing the vowels of their singular forms:

          Examples: 
louse -> lice                   foot -> feet
                           
 mouse -> mice               tooth -> teeth
                           
goose -> geese               crisis -> crises
                          
  woman -> women          criterion -> criteria

• For some nouns, -en or -ren is added.

          Examples : ox -> oxen             child -> children

• Some nouns have the same singular and plural forms.

          Examples: sheep, deer, series, species, tongs, scissors, spectacles, trousers, shorts

• Some nouns look like they are in the plural form, but they are actually singular.

          Examples: news, measles, mathematics, physics, billiards

• Some collective nouns are used only as plurals.

          Examples: poultry, cattle, vermin, people

• Abstract words and names of substances do not have plural forms.

          Examples: hope, kindness, copper, wood, wax

• Plurals for compound nouns are formed by adding -s to the principal noun.

          Examples: son-in-law -> sons-in-law

                            passer-by -> passers-by

                            stepson -> stepsons

Concord (Subject-Verb Agreement)

Singular-Singular

A singular subject (noun) takes a singular verb. Study the examples in the table below.

• If the subject contains more than one noun, the verb should agree in number with the main noun, and not necessarily the noun nearest to it.

         Examples: His knowledge of History and Geography is excellent.
                           Of the three students, Jerry is the shortest.

• Two or more singular subjects connected by or, nor, either and neither are followed by singular verbs.

          Examples: Either the cat or the dog has broken the pot.
                            Neither of the two men is very strong.

• The subject that comes after each and every must be singular and have singular verbs.

          Example: Every boy and girl was given a packet of biscuits.

Plural-Singular
Some words with plural forms, but singular in meaning, take singular verbs.
Examples: No news is good news.
                 Mathematics is a subject I don't like.

Plural-Plural

A plural subject (noun) is followed by a plural verb.

• There are some special cases where collective nouns are concerned. Look at the example below.

         The committee {is / are} divided on that point. (Both can be used)

                                                       

Exercise 1

Underline all the plural nouns that you can find in the text given below.

Last year, a grand exhibition was held in our town. My friends and I went to see it one evening.

Our first impression on entering the grounds was that the whole place looked like a funfair. There were countless lights and decorations in bright, gray colours. People were dressed in their best holiday clothes, moving around and stopping to admire the things displayed in the stalls. Goods like musical instruments, clothes and toys were on sale.

The Children's Corner was crowded with boys and girls. They were carrying balloons, eating cotton candy or playing on the wooden horses, merry-go-round or Ferris wheel. Even the grown-ups were having a wonderful time.

Exercise 2

Fill in the blanks with the plural form of the words given in brackets where necessary.

One evening, I heard loud (1) _______________ (siren) go past my house. I ran out and joined a large crowd a few (2) _______________ (street) away.

There was a house on fire. Huge (3) _______________ (flame) were coming out from every window and thick, black (4) ______________ (smoke) was spreading all around. Three (5) _______________ (fire engine) and several (6) ______________ (fireman) were busy dousing the building with (7) _______________ (water) but there was no effect on the (8) _______________ (fire).

Tall, red (9) _______________ (ladder) were placed against the house anf firemen climbed up to the roof with (10) _______________ (hose) in their (11) _______________ (hand).

Nouns (Upper Form)

Nouns
There are two types of nouns: Concrete and Abstract

Concrete Nouns

• These are nouns referring to physical objects and substances such things, animals and people.
• There are two types of concrete nouns: Common Nouns and Proper Nouns
• Proper nouns is the opening passage include:

          Richard Rhodes - name of person
          Hiroshima.         - name of a place
NOTE: Proper nouns always begin with a capital letter.

• A few examples of common nouns in the opening passage are: cloud, bomb, genius, atoms
• Common nouns may be collective nouns where a number of persons, things or animals are taken together and referred to as a whole. For example:

                Crowd, mob, nation, world, army, family => a group of people
                Herd, flock => a group of animals
                Fleet, packet => a group of things
NOTE: A common noun is a name given to every person or thing of the same class or kind.

Abstract Nouns

• These refer to qualities (kindness, strength, freedom); actions and events (explosion, research, combination); states (peace, hope, belief) and feelings (love, hate).
• Abstract nouns are formed from:

              (i) Adjectives
                  Examples: kind -> kindness
                                    honest -> honesty
             (ii) Verbs
                   Examples: grow -> growth
                                     move -> movement
            (iii) Common Nouns
                   Examples: child -> childhood
                                     friend -> friendship


Countable and Uncountable Nouns

• Countable nouns are things which CAN be counted, e.g. pen, book, boy, cat, durian.
• Uncountable nouns are things which CANNOT be counted, e.g. milk, sugar, gold, honesty. They usually denote substances and abstract things.
• Countable nouns may be singular or plural. A, an, the or a number is used before a countable noun to show whether it is singular or plural.

Examples:
SINGULAR COUNTABLES

• a doll
• the doll
• an apple
• the apple

PLURAL COUNTABLES

• two dolls
• the dolls
• three apples
• the apples

• Often, plural countables do not have articles before them.

          Examples: Roses are red.

                            Violets are blue.

• Only common nouns are preceded by articles. Articles should not appear before proper nouns.

          Examples: Sarina, Milo, Malaysia, Mount Kinabalu

• But we can say:

             a/the Malaysian                        (a race in general)

            the Central Market                    (important buildings)

            The President                            (top positions)

            the United States of America    (countries indicating a group)

            the Olympic Games                  (special events)

• Uncountable nouns cannot have a or an before them. They are followed by singular verbs.

          Example: Water is good for health.

• Words that show quantity (some, much, a little) may precede uncountable common nouns.

          Example: Some salt is added to the curry.

• Sometimes, these uncountable nouns are preceded by nouns such as ‘kilogramme’, ‘packet’, etc.

         Examples: a kilogramme of salt, a packet of curry powder

• Abstract nouns, such as joy, hope, happiness and love, cannot be measured.

EXERCISE

The picture below shows a tuition class going on. Write a paragraph of about 100 words about the picture using the nouns given.

Adverbs (Lower Form)

Adverbs

• An adverb generally tells you more about a verb. On the other hand, an adjective describes a noun. Look at the examples below:

         (adjective)        Look at the fast car!                ('fast' describes the noun 'car')

         (adverb)           Look, that car is going fast!    ('fast' describes the verb 'go')

Adverbs of Manner

• You use these adverbs to describe HOW something happened.
• These adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the end of an adjective.

              adjective + ly → adverb                            

                   quick + ly → quickly

                  happy + ly → happily

• However, certain adverbs do not end in -ly. Some common ones are: fast, hard, far, well

          Example: He ran fast.       (√)

                          He ran fastly.     (×)

• Some words that end with -ly are NOT adverbs. For example: friendly, lovely, lonely, silly. These words are adjectives.
• Adverbs of manner can be used in many places in a sentence, but usually after a verb.

         Example: She walks gracefully on stage. ('walk' is the verb)

Adverbs of Time

• You use these adverbs to describe WHEN something happened.
• They are not the same as adverbs of manner. They are not formed by adding -ly to an adjective.

         Example: When did Saleh leave the house?

                         He left the house just now.

• More examples of commonly used adverbs of time:

         now, at this moment, today, in      (month)     , already, yet, before, still, just, yesterday, just now,          last night/week/month/year, this morning/evening,           ago, then, tomorrow, next           , soon,          tonight, later

Adverbs of Frequency

• You use these adverbs to describe HOW OFTEN something is done.
• Examples of commonly used adverbs of frequency: always, frequently, regularly, often, sometimes, seldom, rarely, hardly, once a           

Read the summary of a movie below, then read the notes in the box.

"E.T. phone home..." is an unforgettable line from the movie 'E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial'. The story is about an alien who is accidentally left behind on Earth. Elliot, a young boy, befriends him. E.T. has many adventures and misadventures. He is a loveable character. He is only three feet tall and waddles slowly. He speaks haltingly and often chatters unintelligibly when surprised. E.T. is eventually captured by government officials. He suffers terribly because of exposure to pollited air for too long. The neighbourhood children help to free E.T. and send him to the site where the spaceship lands to take him to his home planet. Elliot and E.T. both part tearfully as the loveable alien points to Elliot's heart and says, "I'll be right here."

**The underline words are called adverbs while the words in bold italics are verbs. Adverbs describe verbs while adjectives describe nouns. Look at how the adverbs here describe the verbs in the passage.

Online Shopping (Lower Form)

Assalamualaikum & Hi students. How are you?

Today we will learn about online shopping. Please take your text book and turn to page 90. Read the article as below.

After you read the article, please answer the question below.
https://forms.gle/tj4GH32oAg9W94vE7

Pronouns (Lower Form)

Pronoun

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. There are a few types of  pronouns:

• Personal pronouns e.g. I, you, we, they, he, she, it, him
• Possessive pronouns e.g. mine, yours, ours, theirs
• Demonstrative pronouns e.g. that, this, those, these
• Interrogative pronouns e.g. Who, What, Where, Whose, Whom

Personal Pronouns 

• Look at the following examples showing how the pronouns are used.

          Examples:

               Mat and June are friends. He has known her for ten years.

               Yan Li has a goldfish. She always feeds it fresh worms.

               Tom, Rick and Larry are bus drivers. They ferry schoolchildren.

               We are taking sewing lessons. It is up to us to choose the materials we like.

               They are hungry. Puan Zaiton is going to give them a snack.

               I hope to get there by nightfall. My parents are expecting me.

Possessive Pronouns

• These pronouns are used to show who an object belongs to. Read the examples below:

           The red shirt is mine. (The red shirt belongs to me.)

           This ticket is yours. (This ticket belongs to you.)

           His friend is here to see him. (Andy’s friend is here to see him.)

           The puppy is hers. (The puppy belongs to her.)

           The blue van is ours. (The blue van belongs to us.

           The radio is theirs. (The radio belongs to them.)

• There are two types of ‘possessive words’. A possessive adjective has a noun after it while a possessive pronoun does not. Look at the table below.

Personal pronouns	I	you	he	she	it	we	they
Possessive adjectives	my	your	his	her	its	our	their
Possessive pronouns	mine	yours	his	hers	-	ours	theirs

• The sentence in brackets means the same as the former sentence.

          Examples: This is my car. (This car is mine.)

                            (Notice that there is the noun ‘car’ after ‘my’. There is no noun after ‘mine’.)

Interrogative Pronouns

• Who, Whom, Which, What and Where are interrogative pronouns. These pronouns are used to ask about people, places or things.

          Example: Who is this man?

                          Whom did you give the book to?

                          Which is your pen, the blue or the red one?

                          What is inside this box?

                          Where does your friend live?

• Whose is used to ask who the owner of an object is.

          Example: Alice : Whose book is this?

                          Jenny : Oh, it is Sue’s. (The book belongs to Sue.)


Demonstrative Pronouns

• Demonstrative pronouns include words like this, that, these and those.
• This and that are uses to describe singular nouns. These and those are used to describe plural nouns.
• This and these are used to refer to things that are near us. That and those are used to refer to things that are far away. 

The Use of 'Each'

• Each is used to refer to every single member of a group. It basically means 'every'.
• Each is used with countable nouns only.
• Each takes singular verbs, nouns and pronouns.

          Example: Each child was given a lollipop.

Adjectives (Lower Form)

Prahlad Jani - The Foodless Man

Prahlad Jani is a strange man. He does not eat. He is not fasting. He is neither bulimic nor anorexic. He is called the "foodless man". He says he has not eaten for the last 68 years. How then has he survived? 400 confused doctors at a hospital in Ahmedabad are said to have observed him closely for teh days to see if what he claims is true. They had close-circuit cameras to watch him day and nights. The 76-year-old Prahlad is like other Hindu holy men in some respects. He puts on red robes, gold beard, white moustache and long, grey hair that is tied up in a pony-tail. Apparently, he is an ideal candidate for the X-files.

(NST - Thursday, November 27, 2003)

**Note the words in bold. These words are called adjectives. See how they describe and make the passage more interesting.

Adjectives

• Adjectives are words that describe nouns.
• Adjectives usually answer the question "What type/kind of...?"

          Example 1: Prahlad Jani is a strange man.

          --- What type of man is Prahlad? A strange man.

         Example 2: That is a new book.

         --- What type of book is that? A new book.

• Adjectives describe colour.

         Examples: He puts on red robes, gold chains...

                          She likes the red lipstick.

                          Mother bought some green vegetables

• Adjectives describe size.

         Examples: He has a white beard, white moustache and long, grey hair...

                          Grandmother has tiny feet.

                          Malik read a short passage.

• Adjectives describe quality.

        Examples: Apparently, he is an ideal candidate for the X-files.

                         That hotel has excellent service.

Prefixes

You can form negative adjectives by adding prefixes such as dis-, in-, or im- before the adjectives.

Examples: I had an unpleasant experience at the dentist's.

                 It is almost impossible to open a crocodile's mouth once it is shut.

Comparative Adjectives

• Comparative adjectives are used to compare two nouns or pronouns. You must add -er and than to the adjective when comparing two objects.

          Examples: This box is lighter than that one.

                           Her hair is thicker than Aneeza's.

                          She walks slower than all of us.

• For two-syllable adjectives ending with '-y', change the 'y' to '-i' and add -er.

         Examples: happy - happier

                           lovely - lovelier

• For some adjectives with two or more syllables, use more followed by the adjectives and than.

         Examples: modern - more modern than

                           comfortable - more comfortable than

• Superlative adjectives are used to compare at least three nouns or pronouns. You must add -est to the adjectives and the before it.

          Examples: He is the tallest boy in the basketball team.

                           Cik Salena is the prettiest girl in the beauty contest. 

• Some adjectives are irregular.

          Examples: good - better - best

                           bad - worse - worst